Uganda’s Hidden Crisis: Unpacking Intimate Partner Violence

~ Compiled by Kitandwe Rhodine | Lawyer | CEHURD

Thousands of Ugandan women, and men, suffer silently from intimate partner violence (IPV). It‘s not just intimate; it is systemic, invisible, and inescapable.

In Uganda, Intimate Partner Violence (IPV) is hidden behind fake smiles, wedding rings, and Public Display of Affection (PDA). Behind closed doors, a crisis brews; affecting millions but rarely spoken about. Intimate Partner Violence is the most common form of gender-based violence cutting across every class, gender, and religion. Yet, it remains one of the most normalised and least addressed, particularly for women already pushed to the margins of society.

FACTS;

What is Intimate Partner Violence (IPV)? A recurring pattern of abuse by a current or former intimate partner aimed at gaining power and control. It includes:

· Physical abuse – Beatings with fists, belts, sticks and kicks are common.

· Sexual violence – Rape and coerced sex, though nearly never discussed openly.

· Emotional/psychological abuse – Verbal harassment, intimidation and control.

· Economic abuse – Controlling a partner’s access to money, resources or work

· Stalking – Unwanted contact that causes fear

· Reproductive coercion – Forcing pregnancy or abortion

· Spiritual & cyber abuse – Misusing religion or technology to harm

Did You Know? In Uganda, IPV is among the leading causes of illness and death for women of reproductive age.

Nationally, over 56 percent of ever-partnered Ugandan women have experienced some form of physical or sexual violence from a partner in their lifetime. Nearly, a quarter report having endured physical abuse, and one in four women has experienced sexual violence.

The 2024 Police Crime Report documented 14,073 domestic violence cases and 14,425 sex-related offenses. The majority of IPV incidents go unreported, especially among female sex workers, women with disabilities, and young people living with HIV.

Ms. Nakibuuka Noor Musisi, the Deputy Executive Director of the Center for Health, Human Rights and Development (CEHURD) says the crisis is deeper, systemic, invisible and inescapable. “Women are most vulnerable to IPV. They don’t have the power or the resources to leave violent relationships.”

Intimate Partner Violence isn’t just physical. It includes psychological torment, emotional degradation, sexual coercion, control over a partner’s movement, financial control, stalking, spiritual manipulation, reproductive coercion, and even technology-facilitated abuse.

It is not a single incident, but a deliberate pattern of behaviour rooted in power and control. The abuser, often a current or former intimate partner, isolates, intimidates, controls and undermines their victim and gags or removes all opportunities and spaces of speaking up.

The effects are devastating. Beyond broken bones and bruises, survivors live with deep emotional scars of depression, anxiety, post-traumatic stress, suicidal tendencies, overwhelming shame, broken homes, divorce and or death. IPV also exerts a heavy economic toll usually imissed wages, loss of employment, legal fees, and long-term poverty. For many women, IPV is a lifelong burden that denies them freedom, dignity, and opportunity. It can lead to unwanted pregnancies, miscarriage, disease, substance abuse, alcoholism, disability and economic insecurity. In Uganda, IPV is among the leading causes of mental illness and death among women of reproductive age yet, many still view it as a private issue. Yet, it is national emergency.

Among female sex workers, the danger is compounded by criminalisation, social stigma and discrimination. Public health data shows that nearly 59 percent of female sex workers experience moderate to severe IPV. Many are afraid to report abuse for fear of arrest or mockery. Their abusers range from clients turned boyfriends to cohabiting partners.

“For sex workers, the violence comes from all sides,” explains a Human Rights advocate who preferred anonymity in order to speak freely. “At home, they are abused by partners. On the streets, they are attacked by clients. When they resolve to eventually seek any possible support and legal redress, they are blamed or mocked.”

Women with disabilities suffer greater silence. The Uganda Demographic and Health Survey (2022) shows that 64 percent of married women with disabilities have experienced IPV. This number is much higher than the national average. Women with disabilities are more likely to be assaulted, coerced into sex, denied food, or emotionally degraded or forced to marry early or to men they do not want. Many are silenced, gagged or fear to report cases of violence. At least 24 percent of women with disabilities have reported suicidal thoughts compared to 17 percent of women without disabilities. With fewer options for income and movement, many of them are trapped in violent homes and violent relationships and; they have accepted their fate..

Young women living with HIV face a dual burden: the pain of violence and the weight of stigma. Uganda has one of the highest HIV rates among young women aged 15 to 24. Many HIV+ women report being abused by partners who restrict their access to medication, sabotage their treatment, or force abortion. A 2019 national survey found that 44 percent of HIV-positive women had experienced some form of IPV. “My partner used to hold my medication and say, ‘If you’re still with me, why do you need this?’” recalls one survivor whose identity was kept anonymous.

Men, too, are affected although their stories are rarely told. In 2024, a total 3,161 cases of IPV against men were officially recorded (Uganda Police Crime Report) But cultural expectations of masculinity, self-reliance, and silence often keep these male survivors from seeking help until it’s too late.

“These figures are not good at all,” says Maureen Atuhaire, Assistant Commissioner of Police. “We encourage people to sit down and resolve some of these issues -all we want is peace. You can get out of an abusive relationship; you don’t need to be there until death happens;

Men have a tendency of not sharing anything with their friends, their family members, or even counsellors. They think they can handle it on their own until it’s too late. In many cases, they either lose their lives or they take the lives of others. We encourage people to report and seek help because we live once, and it’s usually the dependents that are caught up in the middle.”

THE NUMBERS IN UGANDA:

· 56% of ever-partnered women report physical or sexual IPV

· 59% of female sex workers in relationships face moderate to severe IPV

· 64% of women with disabilities have experienced IPV

· 44% of Women living with HIV report IPV from a partner

· 24% of women with disabilities have reported suicidal thoughts from IVP

Despite the overwhelming evidence, Uganda’s legal system still struggles to effectively respond to this hidden crisis. The Domestic Violence Act (2010), the Gender Policy (2007), and the National Policy on Elimination of GBV (2016) offer strong legal frameworks on paper but their enforcement remains inconsistent, especially for marginalised populations.

The murder of a Ugandan female Olympian in Kenya, by her boyfriend serves as a chilling reminder of how violence escalates when warning signs are ignored. It reflects not only the danger of IPV but also the inadequacy of state response and social will to address the crisis.

Today, CEHURD is leading a nationwide campaign to bring these stories out of the shadows. It is championing survivor storytelling, community advocacy, public sensitisation through legal aid clinics, litigation and awareness raising. There is need to continue training police, health providers, judicial officers, the community and religious leaders to respond to IPV with compassion, accountability, and inclusivity. The goal is not just to change laws but our mindsets.

“Ending Intimate Partner Violence requires a cultural shift,” says Nakibuuka. “We must listen to survivors, document their stories, and reform the systems that failed them.”

Gender equality cannot be achieved if Intimate Partner Violence continues to harm millions in silence. It is everyone’s responsibility to invest in survivor support, or provide avenues and space for those experiencing it to come out and speak about it, share their stories, demand for reform of our justice systems, and change societal attitudes.

The Impacts of IPV:

· Health related problems: Injuries, miscarriage, HIV, disability, death

· Mental issues: PTSD, depression, anxiety, suicidal thoughts

· Economic burdens: Lost wages, poverty, legal costs, dependency

· Social effects: Isolation, shame, loss of dignity

For the survivors, speaking out is an act of courage. For the rest of us, listening and taking action is a responsibility we cannot ignore. No one regardless of disability, HIV status, identity, social and marital status or livelihood should be unsafe in their own home or or under anyone’s care. It’s time we shine a spotlight on this hidden crisis, rise up and speak up to end intimate partner violence.

A version of this article was first published in the Daily Monitor on 15th.July.2025

Jul 15, 2025Jul 15, 2025 Featured, Media fellow ship

Call for Applications: CEHURD’s 13th Media Fellowship (2025)

The Center for Health, Human Rights and Development (CEHURD) is inviting applications for the 2025 Media Fellowship, a program committed to empowering media practitioners with the essential skills and knowledge to report with accuracy, ethical consideration, and significant impact on Sexual and Reproductive Health and Rights (SRHR) in Uganda. Over the past twelve years, CEHURD has dedicated itself to building the capacity of Uganda’s media sector through its Media Fellowship Programme, a unique initiative devoted to strengthening understanding of health and human rights while promoting positive and factual reporting on SRHR. Through this fellowship, CEHURD continues to shape a more informed, ethical, and influential media landscape in support of health and human rights advocacy.

This year, the fellowship aims to engage journalists and media practitioners from the West Nile region who are keen to advance their capacity in reporting SRHR issues. Participants in this fellowship will experience a two-day, in-person training conducted in the West Nile Region, structured as an interactive and practical learning experience utilizing workshops, lectures, group discussions, and expert panels. The program’s curriculum covers an array of pressing topics, such as the links between mental health and SRHR, the implications of Uganda’s National Self-Care interventions, approaches rooted in gender transformation, investigative journalism practices, and strategies to combat misinformation in the digital age.

The selected cohort will consist of media professionals, all passionate about broadening their understanding of SRHR in the context of ongoing shifts in climate, geopolitics, and funding landscapes, and eager to refine their investigative and storytelling skills within their communities.

Dates: The fellowship will run from Monday, July 28th to Tuesday, July 29th, 2025.
Application Deadline: All completed applications must be submitted by Tuesday, July 22nd, 2025.

Details for the Call for Media Fellowship 2025 Download

Application-Form-for-CEHURD’s-2025-Media-Fellowship-Programme Download

May 13, 2025Dec 18, 2025 News

POSITIVE JUDGEMENT; Justice for a 15-year-old SGBV survivor

In 2021, CEHURD received and documented a complaint from Mr. Malinga Ronald of Buikwe District, whose 15-year-old daughter was defiled and impregnated by their landlord, Kyesswa Edward. The accused threatened and defiled the survivor twice while her parents were away, impregnating her. She gave birth, although the baby passed away just a week later.

The accused was arrested and charged with defilement under Section 129 of the Penal Code Act Cap 120 (as it then was). CEHURD watched brief in the matter (attended Court and provided legal representation to the client) while working closely with the State Attorney. After five years of litigation, the Chief Magistrates Court of Lugazi on Monday 5th May 2025 found the accused guilty of defilement. He was convicted and sentenced to five years imprisonment.

CEHURD has opened up a fund for survivors of sexual violence to access justice. The purpose of this legal aid fund is to support survivors of sexual violence with court attendances, and psychosocial support. We therefore, encourage the public to support this cause. Support can be extended through;
Bank Transfer
Account name:
Center for Health Human Rights and Development
Account number: 9030023415843,
Bank name: Stanbic, Branch: Garden city

Momo Pay
Dial 1653#, Merchant Code: 198080
For correspondence, please reach out to:
+256 200 – 956006 or info@cehurd.org

#CEHURDLegalAid

May 13, 2025Dec 18, 2025 News

CEHURD Featured in the Daily Monitor’s Europe Day 2025 Special Edition

We are proud to have featured in the May 9 edition of the Daily Monitor, which celebrated the impact of the European Union in Uganda in commemoration of the #EuropeDay2025.

CEHURD’s article, titled “Utilising Good Governance and Community Empowerment Initiatives as a Cornerstone for Advancement of Human Rights under the EU-Supported DINU Programme,” highlighted our partnership with the European Union in Uganda through the Office of the Prime Minister under the #DINUProgramme.

In collaboration with communities in Northern Uganda, particularly Koboko and Maracha, CEHURD spent the last three years strengthening health rights, improving service delivery, and advancing inclusive, gender-sensitive leadership. With over 10,500 community members empowered, we contributed to improved maternal healthcare, strengthened local governance, and enhanced legal and social accountability at the grassroots level.

>> Read the full article here

#EUandUganda DINUganda #DINULESA CommunityEmpowerment #GoodGovernance

Mar 22, 2025Mar 30, 2025 Article, Featured

Women’s Economic Empowerment and Health Vulnerabilities

By Shiena Serikawa, edited by CEHURD

My name is Shiena Serikawa, a recent graduate from the University of British Columbia, Canada with an interest in women’s economic empowerment. I had an opportunity to intern at the Center for Health, Human Rights and Development (CEHURD), where I visited communities in Namutumba District in Eastern Uganda. I was intrigued to explore the barriers to health among vulnerable communities to achieve ‘equitable health and human rights for all’ as CEHURD’s goal states, which resonates with my personal thoughts about health as a human right. My visit to the community, discussions with stakeholders, and review of relevant literature allowed me to understand the multidimensional socioeconomic factors that affect women’s health, notably harmful gender norms along with women’s economic disempowerment.

One of the major health concerns in Uganda is HIV/AIDS. As of 2023, approximately 1,500,000 adults and children were living with HIV in the country, of which around 60% consisted of women and girls aged 15 and above.^[1] While HIV/AIDS has usually been associated with poverty, recent studies show that it is a disease of inequality due to its intricate connections with socioeconomic vulnerabilities and dependency that compel people in poverty, especially women, to make certain choices around sexual behaviour.^[2]^[3]

One such factor is education. Schools are considered a crucial space for youth to gain sexual and reproductive health education, thereby reducing the risk of getting HIV and other sexually transmitted infections (STIs) for girls.^[4]^[5] One study in South Africa found that young women aged 15-24 years without high school education had a higher prevalence of HIV than those with high school education, suggesting that education may prevent girls from getting HIV.^[6] Yet, educational opportunities for boys are often prioritized over girls under economic hardships, as girls are expected to take care of households.^[7]^[8] Girls may drop out of school for other reasons, such as a lack of sanitation facilities or early pregnancy.^[9] Combined with the well-established association of education with employment opportunities, these findings suggest that girls who drop out of school for various reasons may face a higher risk of HIV infections and dependency.^[10]

Moreover, a qualitative study in rural South-West Uganda showed that young women and girls, especially those who drop out of school, may engage in transactional sex with older men in exchange for money or material goods, which reinforces their economic dependency on men.^[11] Young women may not have much say over sexual behaviour in such relationships, further escalating the risk of getting HIV and other STIs.^[12]

Women’s agencies are limited not only in sexual interactions but also within households, which can lead to intimate partner violence (IPV) or gender-based violence (GBV). Violence against women is widespread in Uganda, as it has been considered an acceptable method to resolve conflicts within households.^[13] Given that husbands are the primary decision-makers within households in Uganda, women have little power over household decisions.^[14]^[15]

During my internship, I attended legal aid clinics conducted by CEHURD. The topics brought up included domestic violence and issues with their husbands not providing for their families, underlining harmful gender norms and women’s economic dependency on men. What is worse, even if they report their husbands for committing IPV, they may not be able to support themselves and their kids economically. According to Francis Serunjogi, the Manager of the Community Empowerment Department at CEHURD, some women stay in abusive relationships because they cannot provide for themselves and their families. Reporting spouses may not only exacerbate IPV but also generate stigma within their communities.

A study also found a critical role that household economic stress may play in the prevalence of IPV; household wealth and educational attainment of both partners were negatively correlated with reported IPV in Sub-Saharan Africa.^[16] Yet, the relationship between IPV and women’s economic status is not clear-cut. The same study shed light on women’s relative economic empowerment, which found that when only women worked or earned more than men, IPV increased significantly.^[17] Another study showed similar results; women’s economic status, such as their employment and earnings, was associated with an increase in spousal violence in Sub-Saharan Africa.^[18] These findings suggest that economically empowered women were considered a threat if their male partners did not enjoy the same opportunities, highlighting the deeply entrenched gender norms.^[19]^[20]

The evidence reveals that women’s health vulnerabilities consist of multiple socioeconomic factors that are intricately intertwined.^[21]^[22] Such factors include but are not limited to poverty, education, and gender norms, which contribute to women’s economic dependency on men.^[23]

Barriers to Health Services

A study found that 61.5% of women face barriers to health services in Sub-Saharan Africa.^[24] Primary barriers include lack of money and distance to healthcare facilities, making general and maternal healthcare services less accessible for women.^[25]^[26]^[27]^[28]

Lack of education may also prevent women from accessing healthcare. A study in Sub-Saharan Africa revealed that women with no or little formal education faced more barriers to healthcare services.^[29] Other studies also identified women’s education as one of the determinants of the utilization of general and maternal healthcare.^[30]^[31]^[32] A study in Malawi found that the negative association between the distance to health facilities and the utilization of maternal healthcare became stronger for women with limited health knowledge.^[33] Educated women are more aware of the importance of healthcare, allowing them to make informed decisions.^[34]^[35]^[36] Educational attainment may also determine their employment, which can affect their ability to afford healthcare.^[37]

Women’s economic contributions to households may shape their access to healthcare. A study in Tanzania found that women’s contribution to household incomes was associated with an increase in the utilization of maternal healthcare services, suggesting that economically empowered women may use their income on their healthcare services without bargaining.^[38] Yet in reality, women may not enjoy the benefits, given that male partners are the primary decision-makers and women have limited control over their health and well-being.^[39]^[40]^[41]

Would economic empowerment alone reduce women’s health vulnerabilities?

Some interventions demonstrated a positive impact of women’s economic empowerment on health-related outcomes. A study in Malawi showed that cash transfer to female students aged 13-22 and their parents led to a reduction in the prevalence of HIV and risky sexual behaviour after 18 months.^[42] Another study implemented a 5-year family-based economic empowerment intervention in Uganda, which improved HIV viral load suppression among adolescents of both genders aged 10-16.^[43]

Yet, women’s economic dependency on men and its socioeconomic factors cannot be separated from the deeply entrenched gender norms. In Uganda, it is socially normalized for men to have decision-making power over household matters.^[44]^[45] One qualitative study in Uganda revealed that, despite the positive impact of Village Savings and Loan Associations (VSLAs) on access to healthcare for children living with HIV, gender norms and men’s control over household decisions prevented some participants from attending activities.^[46] Such social norms, along with the lack of accessible schools and household economic challenges, can hinder girls from going to school, further impeding their employment opportunities and economic independence.^[47] We also discussed in the previous section the complex relationship between economic status and IPV—while greater household wealth was associated with an increase in IPV, women’s relative economic empowerment was associated with an increase in IPV.^[48]^[49] The association of women’s relative economic empowerment with the prevalence of IPV can be derived from gender norms that do not appreciate women gaining power.^[50]^[51]

It is evident that women’s health vulnerabilities and barriers to accessible healthcare are oftentimes driven by women’s economic dependency on men and deep-rooted gender norms that suppress women’s agencies. In fact, researchers emphasized gender inequalities caused by harmful gender norms as one of the structural factors of IPV, combined with other socioeconomic factors such as poverty, unemployment, and lack of economic activity.^[52] Therefore, women’s economic empowerment interventions that incorporate gender-focused capacity building for both women and men may be crucial to eliminating health-related barriers.^[53]^[54]

Although legal aid clinics run by CEHURD are not about economic empowerment, they help with gender-related matters from a legal perspective. Community sensitization provides a space for both women and men to learn about the fundamental human rights they deserve and realize any issues they face.

Women face unique health vulnerabilities and barriers to healthcare. Various socioeconomic factors are deeply interconnected and reinforce women’s economic dependency on men, which further fuels their vulnerabilities. Harmful gender norms that justify women’s subordination and gender-based violence against women are embedded in the communities in Uganda, accelerating their dependency and health vulnerabilities. Our discussion suggests that establishing healthcare services and facilities alone may not effectively address women’s access to healthcare. Approaches to the structural factors behind their vulnerabilities, such as gender-focused training for both women and men, may be necessary.

Ends.

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[1] UNAIDS, “Uganda,” UNAIDS (UNAIDS, 2023), https://www.unaids.org/en/regionscountries/countries/uganda.

[2] Julia Kim et al., “Exploring the role of economic empowerment in HIV prevention,” AIDS 22, no. Suppl 4 (December 2008): S57-61, https://doi.org/10.1097/01.aids.0000341777.78876.40.

[3] Peter Piot, Robert Greener, and Sarah Russell, “Squaring the circle: AIDS, poverty, and human development,” PLoS Medicine 4, no. 10 (October 23, 2007): 1571, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0040314.

[4] UNESCO, “Booklet 2: HIV & AIDS and supportive learning environments. Good policy and practice in HIV & AIDS and education (Booklet Series),” UNESCO Digital Library (Paris: UNESCO, 2008): 30, https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000146122.

[5] Audrey E Pettifor et al., “Keep them in school: The importance of education as a protective factor against HIV infection among young South African women,” International Journal of Epidemiology 37, no. 6 (July 9, 2008): 1269, https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyn131.

[6] Ibid.

[7] African Development Bank Group, “Uganda country gender profile,” African Development Bank (African Development Bank Group, February 2016): 5, https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and-Operations/UGANDA_COUNTRY_GENDER_PROFILE-2016.pdf.

[8] Audrey E Pettifor et al., “Keep them in school: The importance of education as a protective factor against HIV infection among young South African women,” International Journal of Epidemiology 37, no. 6 (July 9, 2008): 1270, https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyn131.

[9] UNESCO, “Booklet 2: HIV & AIDS and supportive learning environments. Good policy and practice in HIV & AIDS and education (Booklet Series),” UNESCO Digital Library (Paris: UNESCO, 2008): 22, https://unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf0000146122.

[10] Ibid.

[11] Ann-Maree Nobelius et al., “Sexual partner types and related sexual health risk among out-of-school adolescents in rural South-West Uganda,” AIDS Care 23, no. 2 (January 22, 2011): 257, https://doi.org/10.1080/09540121.2010.507736.

[12] Ibid.

[13] African Development Bank Group, “Uganda country gender profile,” African Development Bank (African Development Bank Group, February 2016): 11, https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and-Operations/UGANDA_COUNTRY_GENDER_PROFILE-2016.pdf.

[14] Ibid.

[15] Joseph Rujumba et al., “‘I no longer worry about money for transport to the health centre’ – economic empowerment of caregivers of children living with HIV through Village Savings and Loan Associations: Experiences and lessons from the ‘Towards an AIDS Free Generation Program in Uganda (TAFU),’” BMC Health Services Research 25, no. 203 (February 4, 2025): 9, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-025-12303-w.

[16] Heidi Stöckl et al., “Economic empowerment and intimate partner violence: A secondary data analysis of the cross-sectional Demographic Health Surveys in Sub-Saharan Africa,” BMC Women’s Health 21, no. 241 (June 12, 2021): 4-7, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-021-01363-9.

[17] Ibid., 5.

[18] Asibul Islam Anik, Muhammad Ibrahim Ibne Towhid, and M Atiqul Haque, “Association of spousal violence and women’s empowerment status among the rural women of Sub-Saharan Africa,” Journal of Biosocial Science 55, no. 1 (November 8, 2021): 64, 68, https://doi.org/10.1017/s0021932021000602.

[19] African Development Bank Group, “Uganda country gender profile,” African Development Bank (African Development Bank Group, February 2016): 16, https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and-Operations/UGANDA_COUNTRY_GENDER_PROFILE-2016.pdf.

[20] Heidi Stöckl et al., “Economic empowerment and intimate partner violence: A secondary data analysis of the cross-sectional Demographic Health Surveys in Sub-Saharan Africa,” BMC Women’s Health 21, no. 241 (June 12, 2021): 7, 12, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-021-01363-9.

[21] Julia Kim et al., “Exploring the role of economic empowerment in HIV prevention,” AIDS 22, no. Suppl 4 (December 2008): S57-61, https://doi.org/10.1097/01.aids.0000341777.78876.40.

[22] Peter Piot, Robert Greener, and Sarah Russell, “Squaring the circle: AIDS, poverty, and human development,” PLoS Medicine 4, no. 10 (October 23, 2007): 1571, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.0040314.

[23] Ibid.

[24] Abdul-Aziz Seidu, “Mixed effects analysis of factors associated with barriers to accessing healthcare among women in Sub-Saharan Africa: Insights from Demographic and Health Surveys,” ed. Yuka Kotozaki, PLOS ONE 15, no. 11 (November 9, 2020): 9, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0241409.

[25] Patience Aseweh Abor et al., “The socio‐economic determinants of maternal health care utilization in Ghana,” International Journal of Social Economics 38, no. 7 (June 7, 2011): 643-645, https://doi.org/10.1108/03068291111139258.

[26] Luchuo Engelbert Bain et al., “Prevalence and determinants of maternal healthcare utilisation among young women in Sub-Saharan Africa: Cross-sectional analyses of Demographic and Health Survey data,” BMC Public Health 22, no. 647 (April 5, 2022): 5, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-13037-8.

[27] Finn McGuire, Noemi Kreif, and Peter C. Smith, “The effect of distance on maternal institutional delivery choice: Evidence from Malawi,” Health Economics 30 (June 6, 2021): 2158, https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.4368.

[28] Abdul-Aziz Seidu, “Mixed effects analysis of factors associated with barriers to accessing healthcare among women in Sub-Saharan Africa: Insights from Demographic and Health Surveys,” ed. Yuka Kotozaki, PLOS ONE 15, no. 11 (November 9, 2020): 11-13, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0241409.

[29] Ibid., 12.

[30] Patience Aseweh Abor et al., “The socio‐economic determinants of maternal health care utilization in Ghana,” International Journal of Social Economics 38, no. 7 (June 7, 2011): 642, https://doi.org/10.1108/03068291111139258.

[31] Luchuo Engelbert Bain et al., “Prevalence and determinants of maternal healthcare utilisation among young women in Sub-Saharan Africa: Cross-sectional analyses of Demographic and Health Survey data,” BMC Public Health 22, no. 647 (April 5, 2022): 5, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-13037-8.

[32] Abdul-Aziz Seidu, “Mixed effects analysis of factors associated with barriers to accessing healthcare among women in Sub-Saharan Africa: Insights from Demographic and Health Surveys,” ed. Yuka Kotozaki, PLOS ONE 15, no. 11 (November 9, 2020): 12, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0241409.

[33] Finn McGuire, Noemi Kreif, and Peter C. Smith, “The effect of distance on maternal institutional delivery choice: Evidence from Malawi,” Health Economics 30 (June 6, 2021): 2158, https://doi.org/10.1002/hec.4368.

[34] Patience Aseweh Abor et al., “The socio‐economic determinants of maternal health care utilization in Ghana,” International Journal of Social Economics 38, no. 7 (June 7, 2011): 642, https://doi.org/10.1108/03068291111139258.

[35] Luchuo Engelbert Bain et al., “Prevalence and determinants of maternal healthcare utilisation among young women in Sub-Saharan Africa: Cross-sectional analyses of Demographic and Health Survey data,” BMC Public Health 22, no. 647 (April 5, 2022): 9, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-022-13037-8.

[36] Abdul-Aziz Seidu, “Mixed effects analysis of factors associated with barriers to accessing healthcare among women in Sub-Saharan Africa: Insights from Demographic and Health Surveys,” ed. Yuka Kotozaki, PLOS ONE 15, no. 11 (November 9, 2020): 12, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0241409.

[37] Ibid.

[38] Judith Westeneng and Ben D’Exelle, “How economic empowerment reduces women’s reproductive health vulnerability in Tanzania,” The Journal of Development Studies 51, no. 11 (September 2015): 1471, https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2015.1041514.

[39] African Development Bank Group, “Uganda country gender profile,” African Development Bank (African Development Bank Group, February 2016): 11, https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and-Operations/UGANDA_COUNTRY_GENDER_PROFILE-2016.pdf.

[40] Joseph Rujumba et al., “‘I no longer worry about money for transport to the health centre’ – economic empowerment of caregivers of children living with HIV through Village Savings and Loan Associations: Experiences and lessons from the ‘Towards an AIDS Free Generation Program in Uganda (TAFU),’” BMC Health Services Research 25, no. 203 (February 4, 2025): 9, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-025-12303-w.

[41] Judith Westeneng and Ben D’Exelle, “How economic empowerment reduces women’s reproductive health vulnerability in Tanzania,” The Journal of Development Studies 51, no. 11 (September 2015): 1459, https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2015.1041514.

[42] Sarah J. Baird et al., “Effect of a cash transfer programme for schooling on prevalence of HIV and Herpes Simplex Type 2 in Malawi: A cluster randomised trial,” Lancet 379 (April 7, 2012): 1327-28, https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(11)61709-1.

[43] Fred M. Ssewamala et al., “The long-term effects of a family based economic empowerment intervention (Suubi+Adherence) on suppression of HIV viral loads among adolescents living with HIV in southern Uganda: Findings from 5-year cluster randomized trial,” PLOS ONE 15, no. 2 (2020): 8-10, https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0228370.

[44] African Development Bank Group, “Uganda country gender profile,” African Development Bank (African Development Bank Group, February 2016): 11, https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and-Operations/UGANDA_COUNTRY_GENDER_PROFILE-2016.pdf.

[45] Joseph Rujumba et al., “‘I no longer worry about money for transport to the health centre’ – economic empowerment of caregivers of children living with HIV through Village Savings and Loan Associations: Experiences and lessons from the ‘Towards an AIDS Free Generation Program in Uganda (TAFU),’” BMC Health Services Research 25, no. 203 (February 4, 2025): 9, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-025-12303-w.

[46] Ibid.

[47] Audrey E Pettifor et al., “Keep them in school: The importance of education as a protective factor against HIV infection among young South African women,” International Journal of Epidemiology 37, no. 6 (July 9, 2008): 1271, https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyn131.

[48] Asibul Islam Anik, Muhammad Ibrahim Ibne Towhid, and M Atiqul Haque, “Association of spousal violence and women’s empowerment status among the rural women of Sub-Saharan Africa,” Journal of Biosocial Science 55, no. 1 (November 8, 2021): 69, https://doi.org/10.1017/s0021932021000602.

[49] Heidi Stöckl et al., “Economic empowerment and intimate partner violence: A secondary data analysis of the cross-sectional Demographic Health Surveys in Sub-Saharan Africa,” BMC Women’s Health 21, no. 241 (June 12, 2021): 5, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-021-01363-9.

[50] African Development Bank Group, “Uganda country gender profile,” African Development Bank (African Development Bank Group, February 2016): 16, https://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and-Operations/UGANDA_COUNTRY_GENDER_PROFILE-2016.pdf.

[51] Heidi Stöckl et al., “Economic empowerment and intimate partner violence: A secondary data analysis of the cross-sectional Demographic Health Surveys in Sub-Saharan Africa,” BMC Women’s Health 21, no. 241 (June 12, 2021): 7, 12, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-021-01363-9.

[52] Ibid., 2.

[53] Julia Kim et al., “Exploring the role of economic empowerment in HIV prevention,” AIDS 22, no. Suppl 4 (December 2008): S61, https://doi.org/10.1097/01.aids.0000341777.78876.40.

[54] Heidi Stöckl et al., “Economic empowerment and intimate partner violence: A secondary data analysis of the cross-sectional Demographic Health Surveys in Sub-Saharan Africa,” BMC Women’s Health 21, no. 241 (June 12, 2021): 12, https://doi.org/10.1186/s12905-021-01363-9.

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